Context of the Research
Across Europe, there is clear evidence of
declining engagement in traditional democratic processes, with
governments, companies and other organisations considered to be remote,
and insufficiently accountable to their stakeholders. Yet, it is also
widely believed that globalisation calls for new, and more devolved
kinds of political and social structure, in which individual citizens
will play a more active part.
The ETGACE
project (See
Briefing Paper 44) has explored the nature of citizenship in
five contrasting Western European countries (UK, Belgium, Finland,
Netherlands and Spain) as well as in Slovenia. As a follow-up to the
ETGACE project this RE-ETGACE project has explored the issues of active
citizenship in Hungary and Romania, as examples of Central and Eastern
Europe, where there are different kinds of tensions determined, above
all, by the transition into democratic societies. The project has
considered active citizens as agents of change that reflexively act upon
their social, political and institutional environment for the “public
good”.
Key Conclusions
The following key conclusions were reached:
-
Due to the
changing political, economic, social and cultural conditions that
have resulted in the transition towards democracy, the issues
concerning active citizenship and governance in post-communist
Central and Eastern countries, appears to be more complex than in
the post-welfare Western European countries.
-
There are
variations in the way people understand and respond to the new
opportunities of democracies and institutional developments like the
way citizens are considered as consumers and customers within the
welfare state. This has created some complexities.
-
The RE-ETGACE project like in the ETGACE project has acknowledged
the existence of a “democratic deficit” across Europe. However,
despite quite a few similarities, several divergent patterns and
different motives have been observed in Central and Eastern Europe
like the erosion of established political structures where democracy
has more recently been established.
-
Problems have been identified at the “democratic hardware” level
(legal and political structures and regulations, new democratic
institutions) and also at the “democratic software” level (lack of
initiatives, institutional and social lack of trust, cynic
behaviour, strong penchant for corruption and indifference to
voluntary activities). These problems tend to lead to
non-participation due to mental heritage, lack of democratic skills
and inequalities or lack of access to resources.
-
The original ETGACE project identified the need to “re-moralise
citizens” as a possible solution to the “democratic deficit” by
regenerating a sense of community and collective responsibility. The
RE-ETGACE project also proposed similar solutions of co-operation,
collaboration and partnership that have been mainly defined as
strategies for promoting institutional development. Responsibility
seems to be the major feature for citizens’ engagement.
-
However, more importantly there seems to be a need to work at the
macro level where real institutional reforms are necessary.
Therefore, the most urgent intervention efforts have to be in the
area of advocacy oriented towards the legislative changes within
democratic and effective institutions.
-
Active citizens in transition or post-transition countries see their
involvement in democratic social transformations as relevant.
Sometimes frustration or disappointment regarding the democratic
society leads to citizens’ active involvement. Despite difficulties
acknowledged, they are devoted to establishing democratic
institutions based on general values like human rights, solidarity,
and the search for truth.
-
Similar to the ETGACE project findings, there are very different
patterns and personal approaches to active citizenship, which are
significantly determined by personal biographies. Nevertheless, the
analysis of active citizens’ life paths indicates that beside the
subjective dimension of active citizenship, it is possible to reach
some objective insights that lead to the construction of social
trajectories of active citizens. Responsibility, commitment and
perseverance are characteristics of persons regarded as highly
relevant by active citizens.
-
A
diversity of practices and sometimes learning strategies was found
in all the three domains investigated: state, work and civil
society.
-
However, due to current socio-economic circumstances in Central and
Eastern Europe, the work and state/political domains do not create
opportunities for individual learning of active citizenship and
governance. In fact, apathy, cynicism and un-citizenship behaviour
tends to be found in these domains.
-
There is generally no obvious transfer of active citizenship
competencies amongst the three domains, although there is some
evidence of transfer from civil society involving non-governmental
organisations to the private business for personal benefits.
-
Learning active citizenship is an unpredictable process that does
not occur systematically. It is more governed by unconscious
factors, than guided by rational choices and decisions.
-
The legacy of the communist system may have resulted in widespread
lack of trust, apathy and non-participation. This lack of social
capital might be considered as a negative response to the principles
of “collectivism” induced in the communist period. However, a sense
of commitment to specific groups amongst those of ethnic affiliation
is sometimes found.
-
The family has a very important role in the transmission of values
and attitudes that relate to active citizenship.
-
In order to ensure their success, many active citizenship
initiatives that aim at transferring knowledge and skills tend to
involve an advantaged minority of urban and educated people. Thus,
they fail to combat social exclusion by creating new opportunities
for people who have been less successful in education.
-
Educational intervention for active citizenship and governance is
being developed in several areas: formal educational programmes,
specific non-formal educational programmes, educational practices of
donating foreign civil organisations, informal educational
programmes, supporting services, providing information, media
issues, publications, and participation and co-operation in
government and company issues.
-
Three different approaches have been identified: top-down measures
related to governmental policies on formal education and the
development of civil society; bottom-up that support the development
of active citizenship and a mixture of top-down and bottom-up
initiatives that seem to be appropriate for strategies involving
community development, rural developmental projects and dealing with
local unemployment.
-
However, current developments encourage the emergence of
“professional activists” in non-governmental organisations and make
these organisations more estranged from grass root society. The
division between this “entrepreneurial” category as planners and
decision-makers on one hand and volunteers as their assistants on
the other hand may inhibit the development of an on-going dialogic
to encourage participation. Unfortunately, it is tending to
contribute to the shaping of active citizenship as an ‘elitist’,
middle-class phenomenon.
-
The major impediments for fostering active citizenship are
identified as poor social-economic circumstances, lack of “know how”
of active citizenship, the ambivalent of existing civil
organisations and a democratic deficit at different levels.
-
Solutions for solving these problems involve: increasing the
standard of living, raising interest in becoming active citizens and
governors, changing attitudes, developing “know-how” of active
citizenship, increasing the reputation of civil organisations,
providing public information, changing the attitudes of government
bodies and public institutions, involving people in public affairs,
changing company culture and involving people in the decision-making
process.
Key Recommendations
-
It is critical
for political parties in post-communist countries to modify their
approach in order to make sustainable efforts for increasing their
interest in societal issues, democratising the political domain and
encouraging “networked polity” by promoting local governance.
Consideration also needs to be given to institutional reform of the
public administration sector as well as different civil services.
-
There should be
awareness-raising campaigns in the context of European accession for
acknowledging that EU-integration is not only Government’s or
State’s responsibility. There is a special role for public mass
media in promoting civic values and this needs to be recognised in
the context of reshaping public media in Central and Eastern
European countries. In addition there should be open access to
public information for all the citizens strengthening their
information rights, providing technologies to foster access to free
of charge services and guidance.
-
Schools should be open to
the wider society, embedded into their local community. If this
requirement is fulfilled, more actors would interplay in educating
youth and school partnership programmes would broaden the democratic
experience of students. School democracy (student participation,
parent participation, teacher participation) should also be
promoted.
-
Teacher training
programmes should address the issues of active citizenship and
stimulate its integration in specific disciplines of the curriculum
as well as valuing the dimension of social activism in what is
called the “hidden” curriculum.
-
International
youth exchange programmes are of immense value, not only at the
higher education level, but also in general education. Financial
support and opportunities are needed to make them possible
particularly for rural and deprived areas.
-
Considering the
role of education in relation with the economic sphere, general
educational levels should be increased significantly. There should
be a special emphasis on the development of basic skills including
IT skills and the transfer of practical skills learning in the
school curriculum.
-
Establishing real
learning partnerships between schools, enterprises, administrative
bodies, trade unions and civil society should create a positive
balance between civic involvement and economic development.
-
The state as well
as private employers should encourage investment in the formal and
informal education of their employees.
-
Civil society
should provide opportunities for those disadvantaged, in terms of
educational attainment, to be actively involved in this sector. As
several examples have shown, sometimes, people active in this sector
are looking to complete their studies by returning into the formal
educational system.
-
As there is a
need for specialised professionals in the civil society domain,
special education programmes have to be developed at the vocational
training as well as at the university level.
-
Both formal and
non-formal educational programmes have to be built on experiences
people have already in the practice using a skill oriented rather
than knowledge oriented approach. The same could be realised by
informal learning in grassroots organisations by stimulating debates
and empowering people.
-
There has to be a
critical assessment of the current developments that encouraged the
emergence of “professional activists” in non-governmental
organisations and have made them estranged from grassroots
organisations diminishing voluntary and civil participation.
-
As responsibility
for different social services transfers from the State to civil
organisations, financial support should also follow as well the
means for accessing other financial support. These measures should
also support volunteers in providing these services.
-
Subsidies, grants
or other opportunities should be found to enable the sharing of good
practice between volunteers and other civil society experts by
publishing leaflets about their activities, and sharing experiences
and good practice.
-
Special attention
should be paid to enforcing community development projects. It is
important to stimulate and empower people in various domains,
starting with community involvement, to take up the initiatives and
withdraw the feeling of helplessness inculcated from the past.
Further Information
The full title of this project is “Reviewing
Education and Training for Governance and Active Citizenship in Europe -
A Central and Eastern European Perspective” with the Final Report “The
Implications of the Research for Central and Eastern European Policy
Design on Active Citizenship and Governance” March 2004.
It is a follow-up to the project
“Education and Training for Active Governance and Citizenship in Europe:
Analysis of Adult Learning & Design of Formal, Non-Formal & Informal
Educational Intervention Strategies” with the Final Report “Lifelong
Learning Governance & Active Citizenship in Europe” (July 2003).
The projects web sites at
http://www.surrey.ac.uk/Education/ETGACE/ and
http://www.socsci.kun.nl/re-etgace/
Final ReportKey Publications
“Active Citizenship and Governance in
Central and Eastern European Context. Report on Literature and Policy
Analysis” 87 pages, May 2003.
“Learning Governance and Citizenship in
Central and Eastern Europe. Report on Life Histories” 122 pages, October
2003.
“Similar or
Different Learning Strategies for Active Citizenship and Governance in
Europe. Report on Focus Groups” 86 pages, December 2003.Research Institutions
University of Nijmegen,
Department of Education, Adult Education Unit, The Netherlands
University of Pécs , Institute
of Adult Education, Hungary
University of Oradea,
Department of Distance Learning, Adult Education Unit, Romania
University of Leuven, Department
of Social Pedagogy, Adult Education Unit, Belgium
Slovenian Institute
of Adult Education, SloveniaContact Person
Dr. Theo Jansen
University of Nijmegen, Department of Education
Postbus 9104, 6500HE
Nijmegen,
The Netherlands
Tel: +31 24 3615819
Fax: +31 24 3615987
E-mail:
t.jansen@ped.kun.nl
For more information about other
Briefing Papers on “New Perspectives for Learning” go to
http://www.pjb.co.uk/npl/index.htm